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How Many Scientists Fabricate and Falsify Research? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Survey Data

Publication Date: May 29, 2009
Journal: PLOS ONE
Author: Daniele Fanelli
Volume: 4
Issue: 5
Pages: e5738
DOI: https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005738
Publisher URL: http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0005738
PubMed: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19478950
PubMed Central: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2685008
Europe PMC: http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/19478950
Web of Science: 000266490000014
Scopus: 66849084202
Mendeley: http://www.mendeley.com/research/scientists-fabricate-falsify-research-systematic-review-metaanalysis-survey-data

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{"title"=>"How many scientists fabricate and falsify research? A systematic review and meta-analysis of survey data", "type"=>"generic", "authors"=>[{"first_name"=>"Daniele", "last_name"=>"Fanelli", "scopus_author_id"=>"26644812800"}], "year"=>2009, "source"=>"PLoS ONE", "identifiers"=>{"scopus"=>"2-s2.0-66849084202", "sgr"=>"66849084202", "issn"=>"19326203", "doi"=>"10.1371/journal.pone.0005738", "pmid"=>"19478950", "isbn"=>"10.1371/journal.pone.0005738", "pui"=>"354709369"}, "id"=>"9c29eddb-1a18-3908-a027-a7f0072f0a04", "abstract"=>"The frequency with which scientists fabricate and falsify data, or commit other forms of scientific misconduct is a matter of controversy. Many surveys have asked scientists directly whether they have committed or know of a colleague who committed research misconduct, but their results appeared difficult to compare and synthesize. This is the first meta-analysis of these surveys. To standardize outcomes, the number of respondents who recalled at least one incident of misconduct was calculated for each question, and the analysis was limited to behaviours that distort scientific knowledge: fabrication, falsification, \"cooking\" of data, etc... Survey questions on plagiarism and other forms of professional misconduct were excluded. The final sample consisted of 21 surveys that were included in the systematic review, and 18 in the meta-analysis. A pooled weighted average of 1.97% (N = 7, 95%CI: 0.86-4.45) of scientists admitted to have fabricated, falsified or modified data or results at least once--a serious form of misconduct by any standard--and up to 33.7% admitted other questionable research practices. In surveys asking about the behaviour of colleagues, admission rates were 14.12% (N = 12, 95% CI: 9.91-19.72) for falsification, and up to 72% for other questionable research practices. Meta-regression showed that self reports surveys, surveys using the words \"falsification\" or \"fabrication\", and mailed surveys yielded lower percentages of misconduct. When these factors were controlled for, misconduct was reported more frequently by medical/pharmacological researchers than others. Considering that these surveys ask sensitive questions and have other limitations, it appears likely that this is a conservative estimate of the true prevalence of scientific misconduct.", "link"=>"http://www.mendeley.com/research/scientists-fabricate-falsify-research-systematic-review-metaanalysis-survey-data", "reader_count"=>1183, "reader_count_by_academic_status"=>{"Unspecified"=>26, "Professor > Associate Professor"=>88, "Librarian"=>20, "Researcher"=>246, "Student > Doctoral Student"=>65, "Student > Ph. D. Student"=>231, "Student > Postgraduate"=>34, "Student > Master"=>175, "Other"=>75, "Student > Bachelor"=>104, "Lecturer"=>32, "Lecturer > Senior Lecturer"=>18, "Professor"=>68}, "reader_count_by_user_role"=>{"Unspecified"=>26, "Professor > Associate Professor"=>88, "Librarian"=>20, "Researcher"=>246, "Student > Doctoral Student"=>65, "Student > Ph. D. Student"=>231, "Student > Postgraduate"=>34, "Student > Master"=>175, "Other"=>75, "Student > Bachelor"=>104, "Lecturer"=>32, "Lecturer > Senior Lecturer"=>18, "Professor"=>68}, "reader_count_by_subject_area"=>{"Unspecified"=>54, "Agricultural and Biological Sciences"=>280, "Philosophy"=>15, "Arts and Humanities"=>24, "Business, Management and Accounting"=>46, "Chemical Engineering"=>2, "Chemistry"=>30, "Computer Science"=>65, "Earth and Planetary Sciences"=>11, "Economics, Econometrics and Finance"=>21, "Energy"=>2, "Engineering"=>29, "Environmental Science"=>39, "Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology"=>38, "Nursing and Health Professions"=>13, "Materials Science"=>3, "Mathematics"=>12, "Medicine and Dentistry"=>190, "Neuroscience"=>14, "Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science"=>7, "Physics and Astronomy"=>14, "Psychology"=>158, "Social Sciences"=>91, "Immunology and Microbiology"=>5, "Linguistics"=>10, "Design"=>2, "Sports and Recreations"=>7}, "reader_count_by_subdiscipline"=>{"Psychology"=>{"Psychology"=>158}, "Sports and Recreations"=>{"Sports and Recreations"=>7}, "Mathematics"=>{"Mathematics"=>12}, "Environmental Science"=>{"Environmental Science"=>39}, "Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science"=>{"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science"=>7}, "Chemical Engineering"=>{"Chemical Engineering"=>2}, "Design"=>{"Design"=>2}, "Engineering"=>{"Engineering"=>29}, "Neuroscience"=>{"Neuroscience"=>14}, "Energy"=>{"Energy"=>2}, "Immunology and Microbiology"=>{"Immunology and Microbiology"=>5}, "Agricultural and Biological Sciences"=>{"Agricultural and Biological Sciences"=>280}, "Computer Science"=>{"Computer Science"=>65}, "Business, Management and Accounting"=>{"Business, Management and Accounting"=>46}, "Linguistics"=>{"Linguistics"=>10}, "Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology"=>{"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology"=>38}, "Materials Science"=>{"Materials Science"=>3}, "Medicine and Dentistry"=>{"Medicine and Dentistry"=>190}, "Social Sciences"=>{"Social Sciences"=>91}, "Physics and Astronomy"=>{"Physics and Astronomy"=>14}, "Unspecified"=>{"Unspecified"=>54}, "Arts and Humanities"=>{"Arts and Humanities"=>24}, "Chemistry"=>{"Chemistry"=>30}, "Earth and Planetary Sciences"=>{"Earth and Planetary Sciences"=>11}, "Economics, Econometrics and Finance"=>{"Economics, Econometrics and Finance"=>21}, "Nursing and Health Professions"=>{"Nursing and Health Professions"=>13}, "Philosophy"=>{"Philosophy"=>15}}, "reader_count_by_country"=>{"United States"=>38, "Egypt"=>1, "Malaysia"=>1, "Portugal"=>2, "Iceland"=>1, "Russia"=>2, "Saudi Arabia"=>2, "Netherlands"=>10, "Sweden"=>3, "Austria"=>1, "Luxembourg"=>1, "China"=>2, "Brazil"=>24, "Poland"=>2, "Slovakia"=>1, "France"=>7, "Chile"=>4, "Bulgaria"=>1, "Lithuania"=>1, "Colombia"=>4, "Argentina"=>1, "Japan"=>3, "United Kingdom"=>23, "Switzerland"=>7, "India"=>4, "Spain"=>13, "New Zealand"=>1, "Canada"=>12, "Czech Republic"=>3, "Turkey"=>1, "Belgium"=>5, "Norway"=>2, "Taiwan"=>1, "Finland"=>1, "Denmark"=>2, "Italy"=>2, "Mexico"=>5, "South Africa"=>4, "Israel"=>1, "Australia"=>6, "Peru"=>5, "Germany"=>27, "Indonesia"=>2}, "group_count"=>44}

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{"domain"=>"self.PhilosophyofScience", "banned_by"=>nil, "media_embed"=>{}, "subreddit"=>"PhilosophyofScience", "selftext_html"=>"<div class=\"md\">I.\n\nPeople accept without reflection the ideas, fads, styles, and tastes of their times. Everyone is subject to this problem, even those that harp on this problem.\n\nWhy do we dismiss the stories printed in the National Enquirer and accept the articles printed in Scientific American? Is the difference in the presentation? Are we clued in to the problems in trusting the National Enquirer after seeing the sensationalistic headlines and poor typesetting? \n\nWe&#39;re just going about begging the question, since we are using the guilty verdict as part of the prosecution. It sounds like a matter of taste to prefer Scientific American for its excellent formatting. What are we to make of <a href=\"http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704509704575019123220714044.html\">the discovery by the National Inquirer of the John Edwards scandal</a>?\n\nI hope that it is noncontroversial to assert that the truth of a message isn&#39;t determined by the style of the message conveyed. That said, the presentation of the content is sometimes just as important as the content, especially when time and energy are to be conserved.\n\nII.\n\nWe often use these quick assessments of style, rather than the substance, in our day-to-day lives. I don&#39;t pay attention to the street preacher -- he acts like a lunatic. I admit, this quick decision to sort between the true and the false on the style of presentation runs into all sorts of problems.\n\nIt could be said that I&#39;m employing &#39;common sense&#39;, that when someone sounds like they are barking mad, I see no reason to think to the contrary. The converse is true as well, but not as severe: if someone appears to be honest, I will treat his claims with good faith, but many people are sincere, yet provide contradictory claims. I&#39;m wary of lunacy, but I&#39;m equally wary of sincerity.\n\nI want things that are instinctive and inscrutable, simple, elegant and intuitive. I have, you might say, my own personal religion: I&#39;ll separate the wheat from the chaff by my &#39;inner light&#39; of reason.\n\nIII.\n\nAn enormous number of people are fascinated with what I would consider nonsense of the highest order -- miracles, karma, ghosts, reincarnation, etc. These same people are often uninterested in the (at least to me) fascinating things published in scientific journals. My ability to defend this preference of the discovery of Tiktaalik over belief in angels is weaker than I would like. I would be hard-pressed to come up with some nontechnical reasons for preferring the work done at the LHC that would convince a skeptic, especially when confronted by a witty sociologist arguing the contrary.\n\nWe are almost always encountering novel situations, and we try to apply our past knowledge to these cases in such a way as to minimize our mistakes. It would be a mistake to think that we can apply this &#39;common sense&#39; to to domain of science, for these situations must involve things we do not know. Just as &#39;common sense&#39; is pushed outside its limits when addressing apparent cases of magic, &#39;common sense&#39; ends when science begins.\n\nScience is dealing with the limits of our common sense, the limits of our heuristics. The concepts of relativity and quantum mechanics are as barking mad as the street preacher. So, why adopt science? \n\nIV.\n\nThere&#39;s been a historical answer to this question: accept science on its success. <a href=\"http://xkcd.com/54/\">Science works, bitches</a>, or something of the sort. Its success justifies its use.\n\nWe can&#39;t all be cowboys; we cannot start from Year Zero; we must accept some things because someone we trust says so; we must adopt the traditions of the scientific culture. Because they work.\n\nYet, if I adopt this kind of tradition, I succumb to the most embarrassing kind of scientism. I am accepting what scientists tell me because they say so, on faith. George Orwell pointed out that the average person today is about as naive as was the average person in the Middle Ages. In the Middle Ages people believed in the authority of the Church. Today, we believe in the authority of Science.\n\nV.\n\nI can point to the material comforts, but these technological and social developments belong more to technology than science, so I can&#39;t go down that route, especially when arguing for scientific disciplines I know nothing about, or only in the most rudimentary way. I can&#39;t give ostensive examples to support my case. The world in which we live, the very small, the very large, is incomprehensible to us, even the experts, for they do not know the real details outside their fields. \n\nWhile in the Middle Ages there was a comprehensible world-view, today, ever since the overthrow of the clockwork world of Newton, we are left with an ever-changing scientific authority. One day we are supposed to support one theory, the next day another theory comes along to supersede it. If there&#39;s a long lag between a scientific revolution, that&#39;s no comfort, since it&#39;s just a matter of time before the revolution comes. A day, a year, or a century, it&#39;s bound to happen.\n\nSince there is no comprehensive picture to the world, no strong foundation, there is no fact reported by scientists that will surprise us for very long. The order is disorder, making nothing unbelievable to those outside of that area of science.\n\nAll we can do is to accept other people&#39;s word on the matter, even though <a href=\"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0005738\">a portion of all scientific articles published in reputable journals are fabricated</a>.\n\nVI.\n\nNewton&#39;s theory, perhaps one of the greatest theories ever conceived, was at one time thought to be definitive and irrevocable. The Einsteinian revolution tells us that once something has been verified, no matter how many times, it does not become definitive and irrevocable. On the one hand, no number of confirming instances can tell us if our theories are true, for the truth, if we should discover it, will have to fight for its life amongst a series of lies; we cannot tell apart the truth from fiction. On the other hand, we are supposed to acquiesce to science, lies and all. What are we to do? In a sense, we are more naive than those in the Middle Ages, for we can be made to believe almost anything the scientist tell us.\n\nThere was a time when information was a resource. Now, ever since the printing press, there has been an information explosion. What started off as a liberation has lead to a torrential storm of chaos, of conflicting sources and facts, sometimes from the same institutions. Yet, once you decide to reject the scientific tradition, what traditions should we trust?\n\nTo recap: we&#39;ve started off with the tradition of &#39;the inner light&#39; of reason, yet this wasn&#39;t very good at determining if something is true or false, only palatable to some inner standard; we next move to the tradition of science, yet this tradition is ever-changing, never on firm foundations; we&#39;re left with no tradition at all. Once we think one tradition is as good as another, we&#39;ve become relativists. Something&#39;s wrong here.\n\nI conjecture that there is a tradition that works. Instead of the tradition to accept scientific authority, it is the tradition to criticize scientific authority. To generalize this, one might say that it is the tradition to criticize all traditions. I don&#39;t reject the street preacher because of the presentation, because he sounds like a lunatic; I reject him because of the content, because his claims <a href=\"http://www.ebonmusings.org/atheism/thoughts.html\">do not stand up to criticism</a>. \n\nVII.\n\nA weaker tradition, for those that are unable to criticize a tradition, is to adopt a system or tradition provisionally as long as it has withstood criticism. Some people love to be iconoclasts; most people just don&#39;t have the time to investigate all sorts of paranormal or scientific claims. I’m willing to put my trust in the experts, such as James Randi, that spend their time testing the claims of psychics.\n\nI propose that the power of science is not accepting the body of knowledge obtained by science on authority, but accepting something like the methodological rule of intersubjective criticism of proposals, conjectures, statements, and divorcing oneself from their proposals, conjectures, and statements. One than can decide to provisionally adopt the proposals that have survived intersubjective criticism.\n\nDo these conjectures solve the problem they intend to solve? Is the conjecture self-coherent? Does it cohere to uncontroversial background assumptions? If the conjectures predict states of affairs, are there possible states of affairs that are incompatible with their predictions? If so, do the predictions clash with the state of affairs? On another level, is the problem a real problem, or is it a pseudoproblem? There are other possible questions you can ask. Can you think of any?\n\nOf course, the problem remains, only in a disguised form. What are experts, really? Haven&#39;t we just moved the question of who to trust just one more step back, away from the tradition of street preachers, away from the tradition of scientists, to the tradition of expert skeptics? How can we tell who are these expert skeptics? I would like to think that most experts have tried most of the available options; they know what doesn&#39;t work, not what does work, and are critical of most claims. This includes scientists that are critical of their colleague&#39;s conjectures, as well as interested laymen. But how do I know this? I don&#39;t know when I&#39;ve found a good answer.\n\nHow do you know when someone is being honest? \n\nHow do you know when you&#39;ve encountered the truth?\n</div>", "selftext"=>"**I.**\n\nPeople accept without reflection the ideas, fads, styles, and tastes of their times. Everyone is subject to this problem, even those that harp on this problem.\n\nWhy do we dismiss the stories printed in the *National Enquirer* and accept the articles printed in *Scientific American*? Is the difference in the presentation? Are we clued in to the problems in trusting the *National Enquirer* after seeing the sensationalistic headlines and poor typesetting? \n\nWe're just going about begging the question, since we are using the guilty verdict as part of the prosecution. It sounds like a matter of taste to prefer *Scientific American* for its excellent formatting. What are we to make of [the discovery by the National Inquirer of the John Edwards scandal](http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704509704575019123220714044.html)?\n\nI hope that it is noncontroversial to assert that the truth of a message isn't determined by the style of the message conveyed. That said, the presentation of the content is sometimes just as important as the content, especially when time and energy are to be conserved.\n\n**II.**\n\nWe often use these quick assessments of style, rather than the substance, in our day-to-day lives. I don't pay attention to the street preacher -- he acts like a lunatic. I admit, this quick decision to sort between the true and the false on the style of presentation runs into all sorts of problems.\n\nIt could be said that I'm employing 'common sense', that when someone sounds like they are barking mad, I see no reason to think to the contrary. The converse is true as well, but not as severe: if someone appears to be honest, I will treat his claims with good faith, but many people are sincere, yet provide contradictory claims. I'm wary of lunacy, but I'm equally wary of sincerity.\n\nI want things that are instinctive and inscrutable, simple, elegant and intuitive. I have, you might say, my own personal religion: I'll separate the wheat from the chaff by my 'inner light' of reason.\n\n**III.**\n\nAn enormous number of people are fascinated with what I would consider nonsense of the highest order -- miracles, karma, ghosts, reincarnation, etc. These same people are often uninterested in the (at least to me) fascinating things published in scientific journals. My ability to defend this preference of the discovery of Tiktaalik over belief in angels is weaker than I would like. I would be hard-pressed to come up with some nontechnical reasons for preferring the work done at the LHC that would convince a skeptic, especially when confronted by a witty sociologist arguing the contrary.\n\nWe are almost always encountering novel situations, and we try to apply our past knowledge to these cases in such a way as to minimize our mistakes. It would be a mistake to think that we can apply this 'common sense' to to domain of science, for these situations must involve things we do not know. Just as 'common sense' is pushed outside its limits when addressing apparent cases of magic, 'common sense' ends when science begins.\n\nScience is dealing with the limits of our common sense, the limits of our heuristics. The concepts of relativity and quantum mechanics are as barking mad as the street preacher. So, why adopt science? \n\n**IV.**\n\nThere's been a historical answer to this question: accept science on its success. [Science works, bitches](http://xkcd.com/54/), or something of the sort. Its success justifies its use.\n\nWe can't all be cowboys; we cannot start from Year Zero; we must accept some things because someone we trust says so; we must adopt the traditions of the scientific culture. Because they work.\n\nYet, if I adopt this kind of tradition, I succumb to the most embarrassing kind of scientism. I am accepting what scientists tell me *because they say so*, on faith. George Orwell pointed out that the average person today is about as naive as was the average person in the Middle Ages. In the Middle Ages people believed in the authority of the Church. Today, we believe in the authority of Science.\n\n**V.**\n\nI can point to the material comforts, but these technological and social developments belong more to technology than science, so I can't go down that route, especially when arguing for scientific disciplines I know nothing about, or only in the most rudimentary way. I can't give ostensive examples to support my case. The world in which we live, the very small, the very large, is incomprehensible to us, even the experts, for they do not know the real details outside their fields. \n\nWhile in the Middle Ages there was a comprehensible world-view, today, ever since the overthrow of the clockwork world of Newton, we are left with an ever-changing scientific authority. One day we are supposed to support one theory, the next day another theory comes along to supersede it. If there's a long lag between a scientific revolution, that's no comfort, since it's just a matter of time before the revolution comes. A day, a year, or a century, it's bound to happen.\n\nSince there is no comprehensive picture to the world, no strong foundation, there is no fact reported by scientists that will surprise us for very long. The order is disorder, making nothing unbelievable to those outside of that area of science.\n\nAll we can do is to accept other people's word on the matter, even though [a portion of all scientific articles published in reputable journals are fabricated](http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0005738).\n\n**VI.**\n\nNewton's theory, perhaps one of the greatest theories ever conceived, was at one time thought to be definitive and irrevocable. The Einsteinian revolution tells us that once something has been verified, no matter how many times, it does not become definitive and irrevocable. On the one hand, no number of confirming instances can tell us if our theories are true, for the truth, if we should discover it, will have to fight for its life amongst a series of lies; we cannot tell apart the truth from fiction. On the other hand, we are supposed to acquiesce to science, lies and all. What are we to do? In a sense, we are more naive than those in the Middle Ages, for we can be made to believe almost anything the scientist tell us.\n\nThere was a time when information was a resource. Now, ever since the printing press, there has been an information explosion. What started off as a liberation has lead to a torrential storm of chaos, of conflicting sources and facts, sometimes from the same institutions. Yet, once you decide to reject the scientific tradition, what traditions should we trust?\n\nTo recap: we've started off with the tradition of 'the inner light' of reason, yet this wasn't very good at determining if something is true or false, only palatable to some inner standard; we next move to the tradition of science, yet this tradition is ever-changing, never on firm foundations; we're left with no tradition at all. Once we think one tradition is as good as another, we've become relativists. Something's wrong here.\n\nI conjecture that there is a tradition that works. Instead of the tradition to accept scientific authority, it is the tradition to *criticize scientific authority*. To generalize this, one might say that it is the tradition to criticize *all* traditions. I don't reject the street preacher because of the presentation, because he sounds like a lunatic; I reject him because of the content, because his claims [do not stand up to criticism](http://www.ebonmusings.org/atheism/thoughts.html). \n\n**VII.**\n\nA weaker tradition, for those that are unable to criticize a tradition, is to adopt a system or tradition provisionally *as long as it has withstood criticism*. Some people love to be iconoclasts; most people just don't have the time to investigate all sorts of paranormal or scientific claims. I’m willing to put my trust in the experts, such as James Randi, that spend their time testing the claims of psychics.\n\nI propose that the power of science is not accepting the body of knowledge obtained by science on authority, but accepting something like the methodological rule of intersubjective criticism of proposals, conjectures, statements, and divorcing oneself from their proposals, conjectures, and statements. One than can decide to provisionally adopt the proposals that have survived intersubjective criticism.\n\nDo these conjectures solve the problem they intend to solve? Is the conjecture self-coherent? Does it cohere to uncontroversial background assumptions? If the conjectures predict states of affairs, are there possible states of affairs that are incompatible with their predictions? If so, do the predictions clash with the state of affairs? On another level, is the problem a real problem, or is it a pseudoproblem? There are other possible questions you can ask. Can you think of any?\n\nOf course, the problem remains, only in a disguised form. What are experts, really? Haven't we just moved the question of who to trust just one more step back, away from the tradition of street preachers, away from the tradition of scientists, to the tradition of expert skeptics? How can we tell who are these expert skeptics? I would like to think that most experts have tried most of the available options; they know what doesn't work, not what does work, and are critical of most claims. This includes scientists that are critical of their colleague's conjectures, as well as interested laymen. But how do I know this? I don't know when I've found a good answer.\n\nHow do you know when someone is being honest? \n\nHow do you know when you've encountered the truth?", "likes"=>nil, "suggested_sort"=>nil, "user_reports"=>[], "secure_media"=>nil, "link_flair_text"=>nil, "id"=>"cq0s4", "from_kind"=>nil, "gilded"=>0, "archived"=>true, "clicked"=>false, "report_reasons"=>nil, "author"=>"drunkentune", "media"=>nil, "score"=>11, "approved_by"=>nil, "over_18"=>false, "hidden"=>false, "num_comments"=>12, "thumbnail"=>"", "subreddit_id"=>"t5_2r7mh", "hide_score"=>false, "edited"=>true, "link_flair_css_class"=>nil, "author_flair_css_class"=>nil, "downs"=>0, "secure_media_embed"=>{}, "saved"=>false, "removal_reason"=>nil, "stickied"=>false, "from"=>nil, "is_self"=>true, "from_id"=>nil, "permalink"=>"/r/PhilosophyofScience/comments/cq0s4/the_problem_of_trust_in_scientific_investigation/?ref=search_posts", "locked"=>false, "name"=>"t3_cq0s4", "created"=>1279252821.0, "url"=>"https://www.reddit.com:80/r/PhilosophyofScience/comments/cq0s4/the_problem_of_trust_in_scientific_investigation/", "author_flair_text"=>nil, "quarantine"=>false, "title"=>"The Problem of Trust in Scientific Investigation", "created_utc"=>1279224021.0, "distinguished"=>nil, "mod_reports"=>[], "visited"=>false, "num_reports"=>nil, "ups"=>11}

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Figshare 18717 Apr 07:47 UTC

Figshare

{"files"=>["https://ndownloader.figshare.com/files/896329"], "description"=>"Study selection flow diagram.", "links"=>[], "tags"=>["science policy", "evidence-based healthcare/quality and safety in medical practice", "science policy/education"], "article_id"=>566797, "categories"=>["Science Policy", "Computational Biology"], "users"=>["Daniele Fanelli"], "doi"=>"https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005738.g001", "stats"=>{"downloads"=>0, "page_views"=>5, "likes"=>0}, "figshare_url"=>"https://figshare.com/articles/_Study_selection_flow_diagram_/566797", "title"=>"Study selection flow diagram.", "pos_in_sequence"=>0, "defined_type"=>1, "published_date"=>"2009-05-29 01:53:17"}
{"files"=>["https://ndownloader.figshare.com/files/896447"], "description"=>"N indicates the number of survey questions. Boxplots show median and interquartiles.", "links"=>[], "tags"=>["rates", "questionable", "practices", "self-"], "article_id"=>566907, "categories"=>["Science Policy", "Computational Biology"], "users"=>["Daniele Fanelli"], "doi"=>"https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005738.g003", "stats"=>{"downloads"=>2, "page_views"=>8, "likes"=>0}, "figshare_url"=>"https://figshare.com/articles/_Admission_rates_of_Questionable_Research_Practices_QRP_in_self_and_non_self_reports_/566907", "title"=>"Admission rates of Questionable Research Practices (QRP) in self- and non-self-reports.", "pos_in_sequence"=>0, "defined_type"=>1, "published_date"=>"2009-05-29 01:55:07"}
{"files"=>["https://ndownloader.figshare.com/files/896748"], "description"=>"Abbreviations: “Date” is the year when the survey was actually conducted, “N” is the number of respondents who returned the questionnaire, “%” is the response rate of the survey.*Number of respondents who ad engaged in industry-sponsored research in the previous 12 months, out of a total sample of 2253, with 39% response rate.", "links"=>[], "tags"=>["studies", "included"], "article_id"=>567212, "categories"=>["Science Policy", "Computational Biology"], "users"=>["Daniele Fanelli"], "doi"=>"https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005738.t001", "stats"=>{"downloads"=>1, "page_views"=>5, "likes"=>0}, "figshare_url"=>"https://figshare.com/articles/_Characteristics_of_studies_included_in_the_review_/567212", "title"=>"Characteristics of studies included in the review.", "pos_in_sequence"=>0, "defined_type"=>3, "published_date"=>"2009-05-29 02:00:12"}
{"files"=>["https://ndownloader.figshare.com/files/896573"], "description"=>"Plots show the weighted pooled estimate and 95% confidence interval obtained when the corresponding study was left out of the analysis.", "links"=>[], "tags"=>["rates", "falsification", "alteration"], "article_id"=>567046, "categories"=>["Science Policy", "Computational Biology"], "users"=>["Daniele Fanelli"], "doi"=>"https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005738.g005", "stats"=>{"downloads"=>1, "page_views"=>6, "likes"=>0}, "figshare_url"=>"https://figshare.com/articles/_Sensitivity_analysis_of_admission_rates_of_data_fabrication_falsification_and_alteration_in_self_reports_/567046", "title"=>"Sensitivity analysis of admission rates of data fabrication, falsification and alteration in self reports.", "pos_in_sequence"=>0, "defined_type"=>1, "published_date"=>"2009-05-29 01:57:26"}
{"files"=>["https://ndownloader.figshare.com/files/443549", "https://ndownloader.figshare.com/files/443563", "https://ndownloader.figshare.com/files/443574", "https://ndownloader.figshare.com/files/443583"], "description"=>"<div>The frequency with which scientists fabricate and falsify data, or commit other forms of scientific misconduct is a matter of controversy. Many surveys have asked scientists directly whether they have committed or know of a colleague who committed research misconduct, but their results appeared difficult to compare and synthesize. This is the first meta-analysis of these surveys.To standardize outcomes, the number of respondents who recalled at least one incident of misconduct was calculated for each question, and the analysis was limited to behaviours that distort scientific knowledge: fabrication, falsification, “cooking” of data, etc… Survey questions on plagiarism and other forms of professional misconduct were excluded. The final sample consisted of 21 surveys that were included in the systematic review, and 18 in the meta-analysis.A pooled weighted average of 1.97% (N = 7, 95%CI: 0.86–4.45) of scientists admitted to have fabricated, falsified or modified data or results at least once –a serious form of misconduct by any standard– and up to 33.7% admitted other questionable research practices. In surveys asking about the behaviour of colleagues, admission rates were 14.12% (N = 12, 95% CI: 9.91–19.72) for falsification, and up to 72% for other questionable research practices. Meta-regression showed that self reports surveys, surveys using the words “falsification” or “fabrication”, and mailed surveys yielded lower percentages of misconduct. When these factors were controlled for, misconduct was reported more frequently by medical/pharmacological researchers than others.Considering that these surveys ask sensitive questions and have other limitations, it appears likely that this is a conservative estimate of the true prevalence of scientific misconduct.</div>", "links"=>[], "tags"=>["scientists", "fabricate", "falsify", "systematic", "meta-analysis"], "article_id"=>147435, "categories"=>["Science Policy", "Biological Sciences"], "users"=>["Daniele Fanelli"], "doi"=>["https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005738.s001", "https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005738.s002", "https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005738.s003", "https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005738.s004"], "stats"=>{"downloads"=>17, "page_views"=>78, "likes"=>0}, "figshare_url"=>"https://figshare.com/articles/How_Many_Scientists_Fabricate_and_Falsify_Research_A_Systematic_Review_and_Meta_Analysis_of_Survey_Data/147435", "title"=>"How Many Scientists Fabricate and Falsify Research? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Survey Data", "pos_in_sequence"=>0, "defined_type"=>4, "published_date"=>"2009-05-29 02:03:55"}
{"files"=>["https://ndownloader.figshare.com/files/896640"], "description"=>"Plots show the weighted pooled estimate obtained when the corresponding study was left out of the analysis.", "links"=>[], "tags"=>["rates", "falsification", "alteration", "non-self"], "article_id"=>567100, "categories"=>["Science Policy", "Computational Biology"], "users"=>["Daniele Fanelli"], "doi"=>"https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005738.g006", "stats"=>{"downloads"=>1, "page_views"=>16, "likes"=>0}, "figshare_url"=>"https://figshare.com/articles/_Sensitivity_analysis_of_admission_rates_of_data_fabrication_falsification_and_alteration_in_non_self_reports_/567100", "title"=>"Sensitivity analysis of admission rates of data fabrication, falsification and alteration in non-self reports.", "pos_in_sequence"=>0, "defined_type"=>1, "published_date"=>"2009-05-29 01:58:20"}
{"files"=>["https://ndownloader.figshare.com/files/896698"], "description"=>"The table shows model parameters of an initial model including three methodological factors (top four rows) and the parameter values for each sample characteristic, entered one at a time in the basic model. All variables are binary. Regression slopes measure the change in admission rates when respondents fall in the first category.", "links"=>[], "tags"=>["variance-weighted", "regression"], "article_id"=>567161, "categories"=>["Science Policy", "Computational Biology"], "users"=>["Daniele Fanelli"], "doi"=>"https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005738.t003", "stats"=>{"downloads"=>3, "page_views"=>4, "likes"=>0}, "figshare_url"=>"https://figshare.com/articles/_Inverse_variance_weighted_regression_on_admission_rates_/567161", "title"=>"Inverse variance-weighted regression on admission rates.", "pos_in_sequence"=>0, "defined_type"=>3, "published_date"=>"2009-05-29 01:59:21"}
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PMC Usage Stats 2879117 Nov 14:40 UTC

PMC Usage Stats | Further Information

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Relative Metric 67868710 May 16:26 UTC

Relative Metric

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