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{"title"=>"Altruism in forest chimpanzees: The case of adoption", "type"=>"journal", "authors"=>[{"first_name"=>"Christophe", "last_name"=>"Boesch", "scopus_author_id"=>"26642873000"}, {"first_name"=>"Camille", "last_name"=>"Bole", "scopus_author_id"=>"35761929000"}, {"first_name"=>"Nadin", "last_name"=>"Eckhardt", "scopus_author_id"=>"8594195500"}, {"first_name"=>"Hedwige", "last_name"=>"Boesch", "scopus_author_id"=>"7004682974"}], "year"=>2010, "source"=>"PLoS ONE", "identifiers"=>{"scopus"=>"2-s2.0-77749233823", "sgr"=>"77749233823", "issn"=>"19326203", "arxiv"=>"1203.2655", "doi"=>"10.1371/journal.pone.0008901", "pmid"=>"1000090690", "isbn"=>"0011-3891", "pui"=>"358424327"}, "id"=>"e9668540-23d3-33b1-a9db-c8718fabeed4", "abstract"=>"Next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies provide a revolutionary tool with numerous applications in transcriptome studies. The power of NGS technologies to address diverse biological questions has already been proved in many studies. One of the most important applications of NGS is the sequencing and characterization of transcriptome of a non-model species using RNA-seq. This application of NGS technologies can be used to dissect the complete expressed gene content of an organism. In this article, I illustrate the use of NGS technologies in transcriptome characterization of a non-model species taking example of chickpea from our recent studies.", "link"=>"http://www.mendeley.com/research/altruism-forest-chimpanzees-case-adoption", "reader_count"=>116, "reader_count_by_academic_status"=>{"Unspecified"=>3, "Professor > Associate Professor"=>7, "Student > Doctoral Student"=>1, "Researcher"=>30, "Student > Ph. D. Student"=>16, "Student > Postgraduate"=>1, "Student > Master"=>17, "Other"=>3, "Student > Bachelor"=>16, "Lecturer"=>4, "Professor"=>18}, "reader_count_by_user_role"=>{"Unspecified"=>3, "Professor > Associate Professor"=>7, "Student > Doctoral Student"=>1, "Researcher"=>30, "Student > Ph. D. Student"=>16, "Student > Postgraduate"=>1, "Student > Master"=>17, "Other"=>3, "Student > Bachelor"=>16, "Lecturer"=>4, "Professor"=>18}, "reader_count_by_subject_area"=>{"Unspecified"=>4, "Environmental Science"=>6, "Agricultural and Biological Sciences"=>38, "Medicine and Dentistry"=>1, "Arts and Humanities"=>4, "Philosophy"=>3, "Business, Management and Accounting"=>1, "Physics and Astronomy"=>4, "Psychology"=>41, "Social Sciences"=>9, "Computer Science"=>3, "Earth and Planetary Sciences"=>2}, "reader_count_by_subdiscipline"=>{"Medicine and Dentistry"=>{"Medicine and Dentistry"=>1}, "Social Sciences"=>{"Social Sciences"=>9}, "Physics and Astronomy"=>{"Physics and Astronomy"=>4}, "Psychology"=>{"Psychology"=>41}, "Earth and Planetary Sciences"=>{"Earth and Planetary Sciences"=>2}, "Agricultural and Biological Sciences"=>{"Agricultural and Biological Sciences"=>38}, "Computer Science"=>{"Computer Science"=>3}, "Business, Management and Accounting"=>{"Business, Management and Accounting"=>1}, "Unspecified"=>{"Unspecified"=>4}, "Environmental Science"=>{"Environmental Science"=>6}, "Arts and Humanities"=>{"Arts and Humanities"=>4}, "Philosophy"=>{"Philosophy"=>3}}, "reader_count_by_country"=>{"Colombia"=>1, "Austria"=>1, "United States"=>3, "Japan"=>1, "Poland"=>1, "United Kingdom"=>6, "Italy"=>3, "France"=>1, "Switzerland"=>1, "Portugal"=>2, "Germany"=>1}, "group_count"=>3}

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• http://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23212
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• {"url"=>"http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.plos.org%2Fplosone%2Farticle%3Fid%3D10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0008901", "share_count"=>2, "like_count"=>4, "comment_count"=>0, "click_count"=>0, "total_count"=>6}

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• {"type"=>"COMMENT", "annotationUri"=>"info:doi/10.1371/annotation/9e5fec8c-e3e6-475d-8878-e8b9a7c608eb", "title"=>"Altruistic adoption in chimpanzees?", "body"=>"I would like to suggest an alternative explanation based on the distinction between the proper domain and the actual domain of evolved cognitive abilities. Here, Boesch et al. assume that these adoptions are adaptive. But it could be the case that they are rather an accidental by-product of chimpanzee cognition. Indeed, chimpanzees are probably equipped with an evolved ‘parental instinct' or ‘care-giver module' that leads them to care about their children. This module has been designed by natural selection to detect the individual's offspring. However, this module maybe mistaken and can lead individuals to sometimes care about children who are not their offspring. Take another example. We have evolved a capacity to be aroused by persons from the other sex in order to reproduce ourselves. Although this module is adaptive, it sometimes misfires and is activated by many things that do not lead to reproduction. In other word, when we try to explain a behaviour from an evolutionary point of view, we should be careful not to mix the proper domain of a module - all the information that it is the module's biological function to process (for instance: the sexual trait of individuals) and the actual domain - everything that the mechanism actually does, which differs from but overlaps with what it was designed to do (Playboy's photos). Typically, cultural items tap onto the actual domain to get our attention and be reproduced (see the proper and the actual domain of the face recognition module in Sperber and Hirschfeld in The cognitive foundations of cultural stability and diversity).\n\nDomainFace\n\nReturning to the case of chimpanzee adoptions, it could be the case that chimpanzees are not really altruistic. They might have evolved a module to take care about everything that is \"cute\" and \"in despair\". This module sometimes lead them to adopt orphans not because doing so is adaptive but only because these orphans meet the input condition of their module (exactly like the playmate, albeit a photo, meets the input conditions of males' modules). Note that something similar may be happening among humans as well. When people adopt orphans from foreign countries, there is absolutely no evolutionary value in such an action. The explanation of their behaviour might rather be cognitive and only indirectly evolutionary. Evolution has selected a parental instinct that leads people to want to care for children who would have a unique need of them, which is first and foremost true of their own children, but also of abandoned or orphaned children in need.\n\nThis explanation fits with what we know about chimpanzees' lack of mutual help (by contrast, it is surprising that chimpanzees help orphans but let their conspecifics die when they are adults). It also fits with primates' drive for babies and children. Indeed, in primates' societies, individuals are always keen to handle babies and children (there is even a market for handling babies and the scarcer the babies, the longer individuals groom the mother to get the authorization to handle it - see also Sarah Hrdy's book Mothers and others reviewed here). Here again, it would be possible to draw an evolutionary theory (female use others' babies to train themselves, etc.) but it seems simpler to consider that this caring for young primate is not an adaptation, but the by-product of an evolved disposition to take care of one's offspring.\n\nMore here:\n\nhttp://www.cognitionandculture.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=599:altruism-in-forest-chimpanzees-proper-domain-or-actual-domain&catid=37:nicolas&Itemid=34", "isRemoved"=>false, "created"=>"2010-02-04T23:28:18Z", "lastModified"=>"2010-02-04T23:28:18Z", "creator"=>{"userId"=>"125903"}, "highlightedText"=>"", "competingInterestStatement"=>{"creatorWasPrompted"=>true, "hasCompetingInterests"=>false}, "parentArticle"=>{"doi"=>"info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0008901", "state"=>"published", "journals"=>{"PLoSONE"=>{"journalKey"=>"PLoSONE", "eIssn"=>"1932-6203", "title"=>"PLOS ONE"}}}, "replyTreeSize"=>0, "mostRecentActivity"=>"2010-02-04T23:28:18Z", "replies"=>[]}
• {"type"=>"COMMENT", "annotationUri"=>"info:doi/10.1371/annotation/cd7f22b7-44bd-4b5e-b2af-ef27130d2b7b", "title"=>"Aunts and uncles?", "body"=>"I enjoyed reading this is a fascinating piece of work, showing a remarkable and little known aspect of chimpanzee behaviour. Adoption is something that seems to happen repeatedly amongst Tai chimpanzees. However, I think the authors are too hasty dismissing the role of kin selection in shaping this behaviour. I think the problem stems in the difficulty of estimating the relatedness of wild chimpanzees. If individuals are not parent/offspring or siblings they are considered ‘unrelated’ – although this I based on previous studies on this population, as no reference is given to the relation aspect on Table. But what about aunts and uncles? Assuming that full siblings are rare (uncle, aunt)/(nephew, niece) will have a relatedness of 0.125, and therefore, a lot of power is needed by markers to resolve this 9 microsatellite loci is likely not to be enough to ascertain relatedness beyond filial sibling relatedness). However, the long-term studies of chimp communities have revealed the close affiliations of mother and offspring, which appear to extend to adulthood. The life-long relationships of families through the maternal line indicate that opportunities will be present to individuals (males and females) to be aware of their relationship to their sisters’ offspring. I think the strong family ties of chimpanzees make it likely that at least some of the ‘friends’ of the mother in Table 2 are actually maternal aunts/uncles. A testable hypothesis would be that maternal uncles should be more likely to adopt their nieces/nephews than paternal uncles.", "isRemoved"=>false, "created"=>"2010-02-05T19:38:20Z", "lastModified"=>"2010-02-05T19:38:20Z", "creator"=>{"userId"=>"99903"}, "highlightedText"=>"", "competingInterestStatement"=>{"creatorWasPrompted"=>true, "hasCompetingInterests"=>false}, "parentArticle"=>{"doi"=>"info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0008901", "state"=>"published", "journals"=>{"PLoSONE"=>{"journalKey"=>"PLoSONE", "eIssn"=>"1932-6203", "title"=>"PLOS ONE"}}}, "replyTreeSize"=>0, "mostRecentActivity"=>"2010-02-05T19:38:20Z", "replies"=>[]}
• {"type"=>"COMMENT", "annotationUri"=>"info:doi/10.1371/annotation/7d859d0e-5496-4112-bd02-3d0bf9b5a089", "title"=>"Possible alternative reasons for adoptions by male chimpanzees.", "body"=>"Boesch et al. have provided a highly interesting dataset on chimpanzee adoption patterns and have elaborated on potential candidate mechanisms. Two previous comments have elaborated on alternative explanations to those presented by Boesch et al. Such alternative explanations based on kin selection - and its effect on proximate mechanisms - seem especially likely for the case of adoptions made by female chimpanzees. However, Boesch et al. also provide data on a much rarer type of behaviour. As they state: \"Of special interest are the adoptions by males\". I very much agree. Of the ten adoptions that were performed by males, only four could be proven to be adoptions of close kin. Assuming that the remaining six adoptions were adoptions of non-related individuals (though see also the critical comment by \"AfricaGomez\") - could these male foster parents not gain a more indirect benefit resulting from their actions? The authors mention such a possibility: an adopted infant \"could [later] become an ally of the aging male\". The authors then dismiss such an explanation on the basis that female chimpanzees were also adopted by some males. I would simply like to add two further possibilities: 1. while it is true that female infants will not become later allies for these males - they might become valuable as sexual partners 2. Of the six adoptions without an immediate inclusive fitness benefit five infants were in fact males - who indeed might later turn into allies. But another possible explanation here could be group augmentation effects - \"where individuals survive or reproduce better in large groups\" (Kokko et al. 2001). Thus, it may pay for the males to invest into the growth of their group. And here male infants needing help would be especially likely to be helped since these will remain in the group longer than females do (since chimpanzees are a male philopatric species). In fact, Boesch et al. provide one possible factor that may lead to group augmentation effects: predation pressure. Again: under this hypothesis one would expect a preferential adoption of unrelated male infants by male chimpanzees - exactly as the observed \"five to one\" pattern suggest (these numbers are as of yet too small (and one might even say: luckily so) to prove this). This is not to say that females \"do not count\" under the group augmentation hypothesis - they simply would not be as valuable as males.\n\nReferences:\nKokko, H., R. A. Johnstone, et al. (2001). \"The Evolution of Cooperative Breeding Through Group Augmentation.\" Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B Biological Sciences 268(1463): 187-196.", "isRemoved"=>false, "created"=>"2010-02-24T21:25:09Z", "lastModified"=>"2010-02-24T21:25:09Z", "creator"=>{"userId"=>"77821"}, "highlightedText"=>"", "competingInterestStatement"=>{"creatorWasPrompted"=>true, "hasCompetingInterests"=>false}, "parentArticle"=>{"doi"=>"info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0008901", "state"=>"published", "journals"=>{"PLoSONE"=>{"journalKey"=>"PLoSONE", "eIssn"=>"1932-6203", "title"=>"PLOS ONE"}}}, "replyTreeSize"=>1, "mostRecentActivity"=>"2010-02-25T11:19:31Z", "replies"=>[{"type"=>"REPLY", "parentID"=>11463, "annotationUri"=>"info:doi/10.1371/reply/143c563c-3d6d-4df9-9f0b-408415a0a192", "title"=>"RE: Possible alternative reasons for adoptions by male chimpanzees.", "body"=>"Cross the \"sexual partner\" hypothesis (my point 1) - I guess this would be too unlikely. ", "isRemoved"=>false, "created"=>"2010-02-25T11:19:31Z", "lastModified"=>"2010-02-25T11:19:31Z", "creator"=>{"userId"=>"77821"}, "highlightedText"=>"", "competingInterestStatement"=>{"creatorWasPrompted"=>true, "hasCompetingInterests"=>false}, "parentArticle"=>{"doi"=>"info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0008901", "state"=>"published", "journals"=>{"PLoSONE"=>{"journalKey"=>"PLoSONE", "eIssn"=>"1932-6203", "title"=>"PLOS ONE"}}}, "replyTreeSize"=>0, "mostRecentActivity"=>"2010-02-25T11:19:31Z", "replies"=>[]}]}

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• {"id"=>"408669655956717568", "text"=>"18 casos de adopción de huérfanos en chimpancés salvajes, la mitad de ellos por machos(tampoco somos únicos en esto) http://t.co/Rt11G18xAQ", "created_at"=>"2013-12-05T18:50:13Z", "user"=>"pitiklinov", "user_name"=>"Pablo Malo", "user_profile_image"=>"http://pbs.twimg.com/profile_images/378800000000530380/dd5d6a23c917bd44e30533a755c90da4_normal.jpeg"}

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• {"title"=>"Pan (genus)", "url"=>"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan_(genus)", "timestamp"=>"2019-03-11T05:21:43Z"}
• {"title"=>"Altruïsme", "url"=>"http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruïsme", "timestamp"=>"2018-10-28T21:04:38Z"}
• {"title"=>"Chimpansee", "url"=>"http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimpansee", "timestamp"=>"2018-01-16T19:55:19Z"}
• {"title"=>"Christophe Boesch", "url"=>"http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christophe_Boesch", "timestamp"=>"2018-04-04T10:06:02Z"}
• {"title"=>"Schimpans", "url"=>"http://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schimpans", "timestamp"=>"2019-02-25T15:16:40Z"}

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Figshare

• {"files"=>["https://ndownloader.figshare.com/files/866276"], "description"=>"<p>The presence of a close kin does not increase the likelihood of adoption in Taï chimpanzees (Fisher exact test: p = 0.463).</p>", "links"=>[], "tags"=>["kin", "chimpanzees"], "article_id"=>536732, "categories"=>["Infectious Diseases", "Ecology"], "users"=>["Christophe Boesch", "Camille Bolé", "Nadin Eckhardt", "Hedwige Boesch"], "doi"=>["https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0008901.g001"], "stats"=>{"downloads"=>0, "page_views"=>0, "likes"=>0}, "figshare_url"=>"https://figshare.com/articles/_The_presence_of_a_close_kin_does_not_increase_the_likelihood_of_adoption_in_Ta_239_chimpanzees_Fisher_exact_test_p_8202_8202_0_463_/536732", "title"=>"The presence of a close kin does not increase the likelihood of adoption in Taï chimpanzees (Fisher exact test: p = 0.463).", "pos_in_sequence"=>0, "defined_type"=>1, "published_date"=>"2013-02-21 02:57:36"}
• {"files"=>["https://ndownloader.figshare.com/files/866416"], "description"=>"<p>Orphans adopted do not present higher likelihood of surviving for 2 years the death of their mother than non-adopted orphans in Taï chimpanzees (X2 = 0.37, df = 1, p = 0.54).</p>", "links"=>[], "tags"=>["adopted", "higher", "surviving", "years", "non-adopted", "orphans", "chimpanzees"], "article_id"=>536871, "categories"=>["Infectious Diseases", "Ecology"], "users"=>["Christophe Boesch", "Camille Bolé", "Nadin Eckhardt", "Hedwige Boesch"], "doi"=>["https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0008901.g002"], "stats"=>{"downloads"=>0, "page_views"=>0, "likes"=>0}, "figshare_url"=>"https://figshare.com/articles/_Orphans_adopted_do_not_present_higher_likelihood_of_surviving_for_2_years_the_death_of_their_mother_than_non_adopted_orphans_in_Ta_239_chimpanzees_X2_8202_8202_0_37_df_8202_8202_1_p_8202_8202_0_54_/536871", "title"=>"Orphans adopted do not present higher likelihood of surviving for 2 years the death of their mother than non-adopted orphans in Taï chimpanzees (X2 = 0.37, df = 1, p = 0.54).", "pos_in_sequence"=>0, "defined_type"=>1, "published_date"=>"2013-02-21 02:58:25"}
• {"files"=>["https://ndownloader.figshare.com/files/866565"], "description"=>"<p>A) Porthos cracking and sharing nuts with Gia, B) Porthos carrying Gia on his back.</p>", "links"=>[], "tags"=>["porthos", "adopted"], "article_id"=>537020, "categories"=>["Infectious Diseases", "Ecology"], "users"=>["Christophe Boesch", "Camille Bolé", "Nadin Eckhardt", "Hedwige Boesch"], "doi"=>["https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0008901.g003"], "stats"=>{"downloads"=>0, "page_views"=>0, "likes"=>0}, "figshare_url"=>"https://figshare.com/articles/_The_adult_male_Porthos_with_his_adopted_female_infant_Gia_/537020", "title"=>"The adult male Porthos with his adopted female infant Gia.", "pos_in_sequence"=>0, "defined_type"=>1, "published_date"=>"2013-02-21 02:59:14"}
• {"files"=>["https://ndownloader.figshare.com/files/866669"], "description"=>"<p>The adult male Porthos carrying on his back the adopted female infant Gia.</p>", "links"=>[], "tags"=>["porthos", "carrying", "adopted"], "article_id"=>537127, "categories"=>["Infectious Diseases", "Ecology"], "users"=>["Christophe Boesch", "Camille Bolé", "Nadin Eckhardt", "Hedwige Boesch"], "doi"=>["https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0008901.g004"], "stats"=>{"downloads"=>0, "page_views"=>0, "likes"=>0}, "figshare_url"=>"https://figshare.com/articles/_The_adult_male_Porthos_carrying_on_his_back_the_adopted_female_infant_Gia_/537127", "title"=>"The adult male Porthos carrying on his back the adopted female infant Gia.", "pos_in_sequence"=>0, "defined_type"=>1, "published_date"=>"2013-02-21 02:59:48"}
• {"files"=>["https://ndownloader.figshare.com/files/866753"], "description"=>"<p>Number of orphans and adoptions seen in the 27 years of observation of three study groups of the Taï chimpanzee project.</p>", "links"=>[], "tags"=>["orphans", "adoptions", "seen", "27", "years", "groups", "chimpanzee"], "article_id"=>537200, "categories"=>["Infectious Diseases", "Ecology"], "users"=>["Christophe Boesch", "Camille Bolé", "Nadin Eckhardt", "Hedwige Boesch"], "doi"=>["https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0008901.t001"], "stats"=>{"downloads"=>0, "page_views"=>0, "likes"=>0}, "figshare_url"=>"https://figshare.com/articles/_Number_of_orphans_and_adoptions_seen_in_the_27_years_of_observation_of_three_study_groups_of_the_Ta_239_chimpanzee_project_/537200", "title"=>"Number of orphans and adoptions seen in the 27 years of observation of three study groups of the Taï chimpanzee project.", "pos_in_sequence"=>0, "defined_type"=>3, "published_date"=>"2013-02-21 03:00:18"}
• {"files"=>["https://ndownloader.figshare.com/files/866798"], "description"=>"<p>quick  =  adoption occurred within days after the death of the mother.</p><p>* =  Bonnie was first identified when she had already been adopted by her suspected brother, Clyde.</p><p>** =  Yayo has been observed to be carried by 4 other adult males of the East Group during the 4 months of his adoption, but Fredy was the main adopter.</p>d1<p> =  adoption interrupted by the death of the orphan.</p>d2<p> =  adoption interrupted by the death of adopter.</p>i<p> =  adoption actively interrupted by adopter.</p><p><u>Relation</u>: Sister/Brother =  older sibling of the orphan, Friend =  A♀ was a friend of the deceased mother, NR =  confirmed as not related following genetic testing, uk = unknown.</p>", "links"=>[], "tags"=>["adoptions", "orphaned", "infants", "communities"], "article_id"=>537251, "categories"=>["Infectious Diseases", "Ecology"], "users"=>["Christophe Boesch", "Camille Bolé", "Nadin Eckhardt", "Hedwige Boesch"], "doi"=>["https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0008901.t002"], "stats"=>{"downloads"=>0, "page_views"=>0, "likes"=>0}, "figshare_url"=>"https://figshare.com/articles/_Successful_adoptions_of_orphaned_infants_in_three_communities_of_Ta_239_chimpanzees_/537251", "title"=>"Successful adoptions of orphaned infants in three communities of Taï chimpanzees.", "pos_in_sequence"=>0, "defined_type"=>3, "published_date"=>"2013-02-21 03:00:31"}
• {"files"=>["https://ndownloader.figshare.com/files/866827"], "description"=>"<p>Paternal-like behavior observed during an adoption by adult males (with the maternal investment as reference).</p>", "links"=>[], "tags"=>["observed", "males", "maternal"], "article_id"=>537286, "categories"=>["Infectious Diseases", "Ecology"], "users"=>["Christophe Boesch", "Camille Bolé", "Nadin Eckhardt", "Hedwige Boesch"], "doi"=>["https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0008901.t003"], "stats"=>{"downloads"=>0, "page_views"=>0, "likes"=>0}, "figshare_url"=>"https://figshare.com/articles/_Paternal_like_behavior_observed_during_an_adoption_by_adult_males_with_the_maternal_investment_as_reference_/537286", "title"=>"Paternal-like behavior observed during an adoption by adult males (with the maternal investment as reference).", "pos_in_sequence"=>0, "defined_type"=>3, "published_date"=>"2013-02-21 03:00:42"}

PMC Usage Stats | Further Information

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Relative Metric

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F1000Prime